On October 9, 2014, a pair of gilt-copper shoes was brought to light out of an ancient
tomb sealed around 1,500 years ago. Excavated from Room No. 1 of Jeongchon Tomb in
Naju, Jeollanam-do Province, this artifact exhibited the most complete form among all
the gilt-copper shoes ever excavated in Korea. Also notable for their lavish decoration,
the discovery of the shoes immediately captured the attention of the field of Korean
archeology. Here, I would like to share the thrilling moment of their discovery, which I
was a part of, and the process of their reproduction and public display.
The gilt-copper shoes being removed
Recovery of the Shoes
The excavation team from the
Naju National Research Institute of
Cultural Heritage carefully made
its way into the interior of Room
No. 1. Appearing in the beam of a
flashlight out of fifteen centuries of
darkness, the stone hall suddenly
seemed frightful with its walls
covered by thinly growing, tangled
roots. Moving the flashlight down, we spotted a half-buried object delicately pierced in
diverse shapes and shining with a bluish hue. It was a pair of gilt-copper shoes! Found
with their impressive dragonhead ornaments still intact, the shoes had somehow
maintained their original form despite the rocks falling from the walls nearby. Bursting
with excitement, we flashed the light to the other end of the chamber and found skulls
as well. The bottom of the room was scattered with a wide range of artifacts, including
a decorative sword, horse trappings, and coffin nails.
The recovery of the gilt-copper shoes
The interior environment was not a hospitable one for the gilt-copper shoes, with
intruding vegetation and structural instability. A detailed survey of the excavation site
was carried out, followed by the recovery of the gilt-copper shoes. The recovery was
carried out as delicately as the shoes themselves had been made: since other artifacts
were scattered all around, we were forced to tiptoe from one stone near the shoes to
another. Ten days after their initial discovery, the gilt-copper shoes were transported to
the Naju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage for conservation treatment.
Conservation treatment of the gilt-copper shoes
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The demon motif in the shoes
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The lotus motif in the shoes
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The sphinx motif in the shoes
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Material and Stylistic Details Revealed during Conservation
With the 1,500 years of oxidation removed, the shoes revealed their original golden
color. Upon closer examination, the design was all the more splendid. Each member of
the pair is composed of two sides of the upper, a sole, a band around the ankle, and a
dragonhead-shaped decoration attached at the front. The sides of the upper feature
a succession of openwork hexagons with diverse incised motifs in the remaining area
rendered in a line of triangular grooves with a chisel using a technique called “kicking.”
The incised motifs are laid out in an orderly fashion: birds with extended wings appear
in the area near the ankle and sole, with six different motifs centered around a dragon
in the middle. The ankle band measures about 4.5 centimeters high. Attached with 24
cleats, the sole has a lotus design in the center and a demon at the upper and lower
ends.
Scientific analysis of the materials indicates that the shoes were made from
0.5-millimeter-thick copper gilded to a thickness of 5–10-micrometers using the
mercury amalgam method. Technologies such as three-dimensional scanning,
computed tomography, and X-ray photography were applied to determine the exact
dimensions of the shoes and to create a relevant digital record.
Reproduction and Presentation
The information gleaned through the conservation process on the design,
materials, and size of the shoes was used to craft a precise reproduction. Performed
by the Chungnam Institute of History and Culture, the reproduction process began
with drawing a blueprint based on the details of the shoes as revealed by the scientific
survey. Next, each component, including the dragonhead ornament, the sides of the
upper, the sole, and cleats were fashioned and decorated with the corresponding
motifs using openwork and engraving techniques. They were gilded using the mercury
amalgam method and then assembled to complete the reproduction.
The greatest difficulty in
this work came during the
expression of the motifs and the
gilding. Making the holes and
then engraving patterns in the
remaining areas with a wedgeshaped
chisel is one of the most
delicate and strenuous of the
traditional ornamental techniques.
Gilding was also conducted the
classic style. Mercury is mixed
with gold powder, the resultant amalgam is spread on the surface of the copper object,
and heat is applied. The mercury evaporates and the gold remains on the surface to
cause the copper object to appear as if it were made of gold. The entire process must
be repeated three times to complete the gilding. Although complicated and arduous,
this traditional method is far more effective in preserving the golden color of the object
than any modern electric method.
Precise measurements of the gilt-copper shoes obtained through 3D scanning
The reproduction of the gilt-copper shoes from Jeongchon Tomb is a significant
achievement in that it was conducted using the original techniques from 1,500 years
ago based on information gained from the application of state-of-the-art technology.
In particular, the miraculous change in color from copper-brown to golden-yellow
inspired awe over ancient people’s mastery of metalcraft.
The reproduced pair of gilt-copper shoes is now on display in the permanent
exhibition hall of the Naju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage to ensure
public access. As part of an effort to promote the further use of the motifs found
on the shoes, we obtained a patent for the design and signed a memorandum of
understanding for the development of relevant cultural products with the Industry-
University Cooperation Foundation of Dongshin University.
Preparation of a blueprint for the reproduction of the gilt-copper
shoes
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Hammering of the shoes
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Polishing after gilding
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Assembling the components of the shoes
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Further Research
The excavation of these 1,500-year-old gilt-copper shoes also provided a wide
range of other significant finds requiring further research. One of them is a bone
chip found inside the shoes during their conservation treatment, which indicates
that the owner of the tomb was buried wearing the shoes. Another is the two skulls
excavated from Room 1. These skulls will be studied to promote the understanding
of the biological characteristics of the people of the era, such as their height, lifespan,
common illnesses, and dietary habits. The diverse motifs rendered on the shoes are also
in need of further study. The motifs suggest ancient people’s perspectives on death,
and comparative research with different regions could reveal more about their origin,
dissemination, and transformation.
The gilt-copper shoes with the conservation treatment complete
The completed reproduction of the gilt-copper shoes
Iron served as a primary driving force for social, political, and economic changes in
ancient societies, one clear illustration of which was the formation of states. An ample
body of research testifies to the robust relationship between iron and the appearance of
ancient states on the Korean Peninsula. Here, iron provided a critical element in the transition
between the prehistoric and historic eras, and iron culture witnessed exponential
development into the historic period.
Forged iron objects from Byeonhan territory (from the Daho-ri site in Changwon)
The Iron Culture of Samhan
It is generally accepted that iron objects were first transmitted onto the Korean
Peninsula in the third century B.C. from the Chinese state of Yan. It was through Mahan,
one of the three ancient polities that formed in the central and southern regions of the
Korean Peninsula (known collectively along with Jinhan and Byeonhan as Samhan or
Three Han), that iron tools of Chinese origin arrived on what is today Korean soil. The
first iron objects introduced were cast iron agricultural implements from Yan. With the
establishment of the Chinese commandery of Lolang by Han China in 108 B.C., Han iron
culture focused on forged iron became widespread. It is believed to have influenced
the development of iron culture in the Samhan region.
Examples of early iron implements in Korea (from the Yongyeon-dong site in Wiwon)
Iron finds from the Gal-dong
and Sinpung-ri archaeological
sites in Wanju and the Namyang-ri
site in Jangsu in the southwestern
section of Korea previously
occupied by Mahan include axes
and sickles in the Yan style. The
southeastern region that housed
the Jinhan and Byeonhan states,
however, has produced a more
diverse range of iron objects,
from cast iron axes to weaponry such as daggers, spears, and arrowheads. These were
forged, but do not show the typical characteristics of Han iron culture. The diverse
types and forms of iron finds from the Jinhan and Mahan region defies any clear
association with Mahan iron culture heavily influenced by Yan, or with the Han tradition
of predominantly producing wrought iron weapons.
Examples of early iron implements in Korea (from the Yongyeon-dong site in
Wiwon)
I believe that the iron tools and weapons from Jinhan and Byeonhan provide
eloquent evidence of an independent iron culture existing in Samhan. The
archaeological sites at
Hwangseong-dong in Gyeongju,
Neukdo Island in Sacheon, and
Dalcheon in Ulsan from the
Jinhan and Byeonhan period
have revealed remnants of iron
production and iron mines.
This suggests that Jinhan
and Byeonhan might have
outpaced other Korean polities
in developing independent iron
production technologies and
brought a unique iron culture into
bloom.
A distribution chart of archaeological remains from the Samhan period
Origins of Korean Iron Production
Although it was only in the last three centuries B.C. that iron objects were
introduced to Samhan from China and developed into a creative form of culture on
local soil, archaeological evidence attesting to Korean iron production technology is
not found at sites until the fourth century A.D. onwards when the Three Kingdoms (57
B.C.–A.D. 668) had already firmly established themselves by absorbing previous Korean
polities, including Samhan. The above-mentioned sites associated with iron production
in the Jinhan and Byeonhan states have never produced evidence of iron smelting
furnaces. The archaeological finds discovered up to now do not support any hypothesis
that Korea possessed the necessary technologies for iron smelting prior to the fourth
century A.D.
There exists a strong sense of suspicion in academic circles regarding the temporal
gap between the use of iron objects and the production of iron. The dominant opinion,
however, still supports the notion of a later appearance of iron production technology.
Scholars consider that although objects made from iron were disseminated in Korea
from early on, China was able to retain control of iron smelting technology and it
therefore required several centuries before the relevant technology could be adopted
and fully take root in Korea.
Concerning this supposition, several questions arise: Whether Samhan actually
lacked iron technology before the fourth century; whether they would have been
willing to wait a full four centuries for the introduction of the technology from China;
and how the continuous advancement of iron culture in the ancient kingdoms of Silla
(57 B.C.–A.D. 668) and Gaya (A.D. 42–A.D. 562), which took control of the territory of
Jinhan and Byeonhan, can be explained.
Although I cannot put forward any clear answer to these inquiries, I would like to
suggest a hypothesis in this regard. Given that the technology for bronze production
had already reached a high level of development, it should have been fully possible for
iron production techniques to have been independently developed based on existing
bronze skills. In fact, this was likely what took place in China, where it is widely believed
that iron technology was introduced through a relentless process of trial and error
based on existing bronze technology. I think that this would also have been the case in
Korea.
A distribution chart of iron production sites from the Three Kingdoms period (after the fourth century)
The Iron Industry in Ancient Korea
Next, I would like to take a brief look at the iron industry in ancient Korea. With the
appearance of iron on the Korean Peninsula and a growing awareness of its benefits,
people in Samhan must surely have sought the production of strongest possible iron in
the greatest available quantities. They may have possessed a thorough understanding
of the production process, given the excavation of relevant burial goods from sites
dating to before the Three Kingdoms era. These include finds of iron ore, iron-making
tools such as hammers and pincers, and even slag, the stony waste left over from the
process of smelting iron ore.
The Dongyizhuan (Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians) of the Chinese history
Sanguozhi (Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms) accounts Korea’s iron industry as follows:
Iron is produced [in Korea], and states such as Han, Ye, and Wae flock to get it.
Iron is used as a medium of trade in markets; it functions much as coins do in
China.
This is definitive evidence that shows the central role that the production and
circulation of iron played in the Korean economy even before the advent of the Three
Kingdoms period.
In ancient Korea, iron implements underpinned agricultural development through
the improvement of its productivity. As manufacturing and trade in iron objects
became active and various weapons were fashioned out of iron, armed conflicts
ensued to take control of the accumulating wealth of the agricultural, manufacturing,
and commercial industries developing based on iron. Through this process, the Korean
Peninsula entered the era of the Three Kingdoms.
Modern steel products
It may be reasonable to state that the emergence of these ancient kingdoms in
Korea can be attributed to the possession of technology for producing iron in large
quantities. Although it remains
disputable in archaeological circles,
just as the steel industry stood at
the forefront of the industrialization
of the Korean economy in the 20th
century, an iron industry capable of
mass production may have provided
the driving force for the ancient social
transition into the Three Kingdoms
period on the Korean Peninsula.
* A special exhibition on Korea’s iron history will be held at the National Museum of Korea from
September 26–November 26, 2017.
- Title: METAL, IRON AND STEEL, THE CULTURAL HISTORY OF IRON
- Place: Special Exhibition Gallery, National Museum of Korea (Seobinggo-ro, Yongsan-gu, Seoul,
04383, Republic of Korea)
- Duration: September 26–November 26, 2017 - Tel: +82 2 2077 9000
Uniquely housing an amazing number of pagodas and statues scattered along either
side of a north-south valley in addition to its buildings, the Buddhist monastery Unjusa
Temple is best known for its nickname cheonbul cheontap, “a thousand statues and a
thousand pagodas.” The numerous Buddhist monuments encompassed by Unjusa Temple
have long been the subject of extensive academic research, and in March 2017 they
were placed on the country’s Tentative List, a register of candidate heritage properties
for future inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Stone pagodas and Buddha images at the entrance of the Unjusa compound
A Buddhist Temple Overflowing with Statues and Pagodas
The inscribed property includes Buddhist images and stone pagodas in a great
diversity of forms, and also a stone arrangement in reflection of the Big Dipper. Their
spatial positioning and morphological and stylistic diversity have little parallel in the
Buddhist heritage of not only Korea, but anywhere in East Asia. Furthermore, the
Buddhist heritage at the Unjusa property exhibits strong Taoist and Esoteric influences
and retains the intact form of quarrying and marks from the transportation of the
stone.
Unjusa Temple in 1917
A panoramic view of Unjusa Temple
Unjusa Temple is situated on Mt. Cheonbulsan in the upper reaches of
Daechocheon Stream, a tributary of the Yeongsangang River in Hwasun, Jeollanam-do
Province. A north-south valley embraces a huge number of stone pagodas and statues
dotting the low-rising hills about 100 meters above sea level on either side of the
valley. This was where the three southwestern areas of Hwasun, Naju, and Jangheung
intersected in the past, leading to a great volume of traffic. There are currently 141
stone pagodas and 115 stone Buddha images found on either side of the valley, with
some fully and others only partly intact.
A roof-end tile inscribed with a fortuitous Buddhist
mantra,
excavated from the Unjusa compound
Long a subject of dispute, the initial foundation
of Unjusa Temple has been estimated to date
to the late 10th or early 11th century in the
Goryeo Dynasty according to excavation research
performed from 1984–89 by Chonnam National
University. Following its foundation in the late
10th or early 11th century, the temple enjoyed its
apogee in the 12th century, but was forced to shut
down following a fire during the Japanese invasion of 1597 during the Joseon era. Unjusa long remained closed, but in the early 20th
century it was subjected to a series of reconstruction efforts. It eventually reached its
current form of a handful of Buddhist buildings standing alongside the age-old statues
and pagodas.
Reclining Buddhas provincially designated as Tangible Heritage No. 273; the one to the left measures 12.7 meters and is rendered with
crossed legs. The one to the right is 10.26 meters long. Despite not having legs, it is considered to represent a standing Buddha.
Historical mention of Unjusa can be found in the Joseon geography Sinjeung
dongguk yeoji seungnam (Enlarged Edition of the Augmented Survey of the Geography
of Korea), published in 1530: “Situated on Mt. Cheonbulsan, Unjusa Temple has one
thousand stone statues and pagodas on each side of the hills to either side of the
temple…” From this account is derived the cheonbul cheontap (“a thousand statues and
a thousand pagodas”) phrase commonly associated with Unjusa.
Left: A 5.3-meter stone shrine for Buddha images, nationally designated as Treasure No. 797
Right: A seven-story stone pagoda with unique circular body stones, nationally designated as Treasure No. 798: although its eccentric form
defies an estimation of its age, the architectural methods indicate a construction date in the late Goryeo period.
Exceptional Morphological Diversity and Unique Spatial Arrangement
The Buddhist images at Unjusa Temple are presented in diverse positions—
reclining, sitting, standing, and even two Buddhas seated back to back. Fully 62 have
survived intact, and there are many partially remaining but missing the body or the
head. They stand alone or in groups, with the free-standing images found in the more
level middle sections of the hills and on their peaks or engraved in rocks. Buddha
clusters are mainly in stone shrines made from rocks, generally in the form of a seated
Buddha in the middle flanked by standing images.
A seven-story stone pagoda
As for the stone pagodas, 22 currently remain in an intact condition.
They demonstrate great diversity in form, a characteristic of Goryeo pagodas that
distinguishes them from the more monotonous forms that prevailed in the preceding
Silla era. Some are in a rectangular
form, while others take a circular
shape. There are also pagodas made
of fired bricks or in the form of a
pillar. The stone faces on their bodies
are distinctively embellished with
geometric lines in the shapes of a
diamond, crossing lines, or parallel
lines.
A seated Buddha (left) with an aureole, carved from a single piece of rock
In addition, seven stone discs of 2–4 meters in diameter are arranged mirroring
the form of the Big Dipper. The seven stones are rendered in different thicknesses
according to the brightness of the corresponding star in the constellation. Made in the
12th or 13th century, this stone arrangement at Unjusa Temple is estimated to be the
world’s oldest evidence of a representation of the magnitude of stars.
The Unjusa property on the Tentative List testifies to the long-standing practice of
Buddhist worship in a single place that dates back to the 10th century.
The component pagodas and Buddha images provide broad evidence of the sculptural
and architectural techniques of the past. The entire site is registered at the national
level as Historic Site No. 312, and includes three nationally designated Treasures, ten
Tangible Heritage items and two Heritage Materials inscribed on the provincial list of
Jeollanam-do.
A thriving center of Buddhism from the late 10th until the late 16th century, Unjusa
Temple is an exceptional example of the expression of religious beliefs and scientific
knowledge. It is additionally distinguished by the unique stylistic characteristics and
spatial arrangements of the Buddhist images and pagodas.
