Sosuseowondo (Picture of Sosu Seowon ).
Emergence of Confucian Academies
Seowon, private Confucian academies, first appeared during the early Joseon period,
established and championed by the rural literati, or sarim, a term that means, literally,
“a group of scholars.” Sarim were a new social and political force that emerged as a
foil to the entrenched power of the learned nobility, or sadaebu, who played a leading
role in the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910). Sadaebu scholars came
into important positions in the central government through the state examination
system towards the latter part of the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392). Although they
professed to follow the lofty ideal of valuing both intellectual achievement and good
governance, sadaebu started to abuse their power, fomenting political conflicts and
breeding corruption after ushering in the new dynasty of Joseon.
The sarim, which was a faction of the sadaebu, were steeped in the same scholarly
tradition of Neo-Confucianism, but soon found themselves at odds with the
establishment’s learned nobility. They retreated to the rural areas after the founding
of the Joseon Dynasty and focused on enhancing academic capacity and nurturing
new generations of scholars. The rural literati as a social group were not based on
hereditary titles but on individual capacities.
The failure of the local education system also created an environment conducive to
the emergence of seowon. Driven by the need to produce bureaucrats, the royal court
of Joseon established central and local educational institutions. But the local schools,
hyanggyo, were dysfunctional, bogged down by teachers and curricula lacking in
quality and substance. Alternative educational institutions based in rural areas were
sorely needed. Under these circumstances, seowon filled the educational void, led by
the rural literati who pursued a more liberal and at the same time in-depth study of
Neo-Confucianism as the foundation of education.
The ritual space (Daeseongjeon Shrine) was positioned in front, and the educational space (Myeongnyundang Lecture Hall) at back in Seonggyungwan
Simwonnok (Records of Visitors) of Sosu Seowon,containing guests’ names and visiting dates.
Advancement of Confucian Academies
The role of seowon expanded alongside the rise of the sarim’s political
influence. As the rural literati grew into a major political force, seowon as
their academic bases developed into strongholds for social and political
activities. In the archives of seowontoday are found visitors’ books
containing brief personal information on guests, which show that scholars
who visited seowon came not only from the vicinity but also from far-flung
areas. Scholars from various regions assembled in seowon and solidified
social bonds; thus these local Confucian academies became lively centers
for social and cultural activities.
Sosu Seowon lies to the south
of Mt. Sobaeksan between
Yeonggwibong Peak and
Yeonhwabong Peak.
History of Confucian Academies
The first seowon was built in 1543 by Ju Se-bung, the magistrate of Punggi, to honor
the prominent scholar An Hyang (1243–1306), who introduced Neo-Confucianism
from China in the late Goryeo period. Ju built Munseongsa Shrine in 1542 on the
old site of Susuksa Temple in An’s hometown, Sunheung, Gyeongsang-do Province.
The following year he constructed a separate structure next to it as a study space;
together they were called Baegundong
Seowon. Baegundong Seowon was built
to complement the function of the state
local education system. Later it became
the first royally authorized seowon. In 1550,
King Myeongjong bestowed to it a nameplate
carved with the new name
Sosu Seowon in the king’s
handwriting, upon the request of Yi Hwang (1501–1570),
who was the foremost Neo-Confucian philosopher of the
time.
Munseonggongmyo Shrine
at Sosu Seowon houses
spirit tablets for An Hyang and
Ju Se-bung.
The development of private Confucian academies
in Korea are divided into three stages: emergence
in the 16th century, development in the 17th
century, and decline after the 18th century.
During the emergence stage, seowon
gained recognition from the state as
educational institutions and solidified their
capacity, laying the foundation for future
development. Sosu Seowon was the first to
be endowed with a new name from the king
during this period, followed by Imgo Seowon
in Yeongcheon (1554), Namgye Seowon in Hamyang (1566), Oksan Seowon in
Gyeongju (1574), Sungyang Seowon in Kaesong (1575), and Dosan Seowon in
Andong (1575). A rich trove of historical materials provide detailed records on the
organization and operation of local Confucian academies during this period.
A procession makes its way to
Dosan Seowon for the reenactment
of dosan byeolgwa, a
special government examination to select officials.
The development stage saw seowon multiply in number and spread throughout
the country. Private Confucian academies began to spring up in the southeastern
province of Gyeongsang-do, and then expanded to the southwestern and middle
sections of the country and to the northern province of Hamkyong-do. During this
period, a number of shrines commemorating Confucian sages were constructed
under the different title
sau, which was not distinct from seowon in their purposes
and functions. The number of seowon peaked to about 900 towards the latter Joseon
era, resulting in natural side-effects of rapid expansion: deterioration in quality of
education at local academies accompanied by social and political problems as the
sarim suffered reversal of fortunes.
A restriction was imposed by the state on the construction of private academies in
the 18th century, and some existing ones were torn down. Confucian academies
continued to be built irrespective of the significance of the sage to be honored or
of educational purposes.
The restriction culminated in a blanket closure in 1871
when all the seowon throughout the country, except for 47, were abolished based on
the “one seowon for one sage” principle under orders from the royal regent Prince
Heungseon (1820–1898).
Spiritual Legacies of Confucian Academies
Although many private Confucian academies were demolished, their spiritual
legacies still bear implications for the modern world. Seowon were the space where
competent scholars of character were nurtured during the Joseon Dynasty and those
that survived, or had been revived, continue to serve as the bailiwick of education
founded on ethics and morals in the present day.
Seowon’s educational focus on nurturing character and personal virtue in addition
to academic capacity fosters precious spiritual values for contemporary and future
generations. In the 1900s, private Confucian academies demolished in the late
19th century started to be restored, and there are currently are about 640 of them
throughout the country. Confucian academies are striving to revive and reinterpret
the philosophical principles and teachings of the Confucian sages.
As the embodiment of the Confucian cosmology, seowon were not only educational
institutions and ritual places but also were the center of a community operating diverse
activities in such areas as publishing, arts, and politics, where scholars gathered together
and raised public voices. For these reasons, seowon are a significant part of Korea’s
tangible and intangible legacies, which have to be protected and transmitted well into
the future.
